Global HRD

GLOBAL HRD 1
Global Human Resource Development: Italia
Professor Laura Riolli
HROB 156
Executive Summary
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Human Resource Development (HRD) shapes business strategy and success around the
globe. This analysis will provide recommendations for expatriates serving in Italy on how to
conduct business and develop HRD and management programs. One must remember that
global HRD on for an individual requires patience and the ability to relax and appreciate the
differences and frustrations that may occur while working abroad. As a western European
country, Italy prides itself in its rich history and culture. Italy regards HRD as an American
creation that serves to bring many different activities together, such as, the support of
business, training, knowledge management, and strategy. It is best to research the country and
its business culture to understand how best your position may make a positive difference when
leading organizational projects.
I. General Overview of Italy
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A. Historical: A basic overview of recent Italian history allows one to appreciate the culture
and political dynamic in Italy. In the fourteenth century, city‐states Florence, Milan, Pisa,
Genoa, and Venice became major centers of trade and transformed Italy into Europe’s
center of culture. Wealthy patrons funded figures such as Dante, Michelangelo, and
Galileo, and revolutionized fields of literature, art, politics, and science. During the
sixteen century, and due to the shifts in trade routes, Italy became vulnerable to
conquest by surrounding countries and consisted mainly of principalities controlled by
proxy until the nineteen century, where in Italian nationalist Guiseppe Garibaldi led a
popular movement that took over much of Italy, ending in 1870. In 1919, a politician
named Benito Mussolini created a Fascist Party and appointed himself dictator prior to
World War II. After the Allied Forces liberated Rome, he attempted to flee to
Switzerland and was captured and executed by Italian partisans. After WW II, Italy
abolished the monarchy and set up a republic. With strong support of the United States,
Italy rebuilt its economy and became a strong supporter of what is now known as the
European Union.
B. Geographic: Italy is located in southern Europe and comprises of the boot‐shaped Italian
Peninsula, the southern side of the Alps, the large plain of Po Valley, and some islands
including Sicily and Sardinia. The geography has led to the growth and development of
the tourism industry as the country features the beautiful Mediterranean Sea and
unique sceneries.
C. Political: Upon the abolition of the monarchy in June 1946, politics is conducted through
a constitutional republic with a multi‐party system. Legislative power lies within two
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houses of parliament primarily, and secondarily on the Council of Ministers, which can
introduce new bills. The president, Sergio Mattarella, is the head of state of Italy and
represents national unity and guarantees that Italian politics comply with their
constitution.
D. Economic: Italy has a diversified economy consisting of a developed industrial north
dominated by private companies, and a less‐developed, highly subsidized, agricultural
south, wherein the unemployment is higher. The economy is driven in large part by the
manufacturing of high‐quality consumer goods produced mainly by small and medium
sized enterprises. Italy is the third‐largest economy in the euro‐zone, but has high public
debt and structural deficiencies.
E. Religion/Philosophy: Italy is a Christian country, with some 88 percent of the population
belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, although only around a third of these regard
themselves religiously “active”. Spirituality is highly valued and culturally significant as
the Vatican and the pope remain major symbols of faith to Italy, and the world.
F. Main Industry: Industry and economy are strongly influenced by government
involvement, however is trending towards privatization. The south consists mostly of
workers in small businesses where as the north comprises most of the wealth as larger
corporations exist and employ a large amount of employees. The chief manufacturers
include machinery, iron, steel and other metal products; chemicals; motor vehicles;
clothing and footwear; ceramics and agriculture. Agriculture is in decline, however, the
cultivation of wine is widespread throughout the country and is a major export.
Furthermore, 70% of the the Italian GDP is achieved in the service sector, and tourism
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contributes 10% to this sector. The top Italian companies based on market capitalization
include ENI, UniCredit, and Saipen SpA ‐ companies that provide utilities, banking, and
well services, respectively. Companies that provide consumer based products include
Fiat, Ferrari, and Giorgio Armani.
II. Italy’s Culture
Several cultural factors impact the implementation of HRD in Italy, including: religion,
language, education, economics, politics, family life, class structure, history, and natural
resources/geography. As mentioned previously, many Italians identify themselves as Roman
Catholic, however, these beliefs do not define their actions as large sectors of society are open
to civil rights issues such as divorce and abortion, which were legalized in the 1970s. The official
language of Italy is Italian, some variants in dialect, and many students learn English, French
and German. Language is often associated with social stratification, as the more affluent society
speaks the national language rather than a dialect. There is a major disparity in the wealth of
the northern, central, and southern regions in Italy. After World War II, Italy began to shift from
agriculture to an industrial economy. Southern Italy has begun to move from an agricultural
economy and continues to have a large industry based off tourist attractions. Northern Italy is
highly industrialized and urbanized, with Milan, Turin, and Genoa considered to form the
industrial triangle. Milan is the economic center and located in near rich farmland and industrial
development. It is predominant in the production of automobiles, textiles, airplanes, chemical
production, and major electronic appliances. As a result, education and technical skill are
desired by many northern organizations. Italy’s general education system is required for ten
years in first cycle (primary and lower secondary) and the last two years of the second cycle.
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The last two years may be completed in either upper secondary schools or within three‐year
vocational education and training courses. University degrees have levels: a three year basic
degree, a specialist two year degree and a PhD. According to the Organization for Economic Co‐
operation and Development, the number of people taking secondary school and university
courses is steadily increasing.
As for gender roles, men traditionally went to work and women took care of the home.
After World War II, and with the exception of a few rural areas, old notions of gender
segregation and male dominance were discarded and women participate in every aspect of
political, economic and social life. However, only 38% of women under 65 are in the labor
market, one of the lowest percentages in Western Europe and are rarely seen in top
management. Nonetheless, Italians are generally not inhibited when working with the opposite
sex. The nuclear family is the basic domestic unit, but it is not uncommon to see relatives or
several families living together. Italians are famous for their strong familial ties and personal
connection to their communities. All these factors impact the implementation of HRD practices
in Italy and how business is operated.
Cultural factors and characteristics directly affect HRD implementation relative to the roles
of trainers and trainees, analysis and design or learning programs, development, and the
business environment. Italy’s business structure is mainly comprised of traditional heretical
pyramids with a centralized top management. Decisions are made slowly and companies tend
to use business meeting as a time to analyze problems rather than make decisions.
A. HRD Roles: Leaders and trainers may be autocratic, expecting loyalty and respect. To
earn this, trainees expect their trainers to have a high degree of technical competence
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as well as charismatic leadership skills. Trainees may share opinions, but it is difficult to
refute the expertise opinion of such advisor. Furthermore, Italians expect conversations
to be held in order to develop relationships and foster support among peers. Such
cultural factors as class structure, education, and language support these types of roles
and relationships between a trainer and trainee.
B. Analysis and Design of Training Programs: In Italy, workplace training is predominantly
voluntary, and there is no statutory obligation on employers to provide or finance
training except for general health and safety programs. Italy utilizes apprenticeships to
provide the training opportunities for people looking to enter the labor force.
Apprenticeships are regulated by law and have a minimum duration of six months.
There are three kinds of apprenticeships, the first being a three year contract that
enables youth 15 to 25 the ability to obtain a professional qualification and complete
obligatory education in doing so. The second is a qualifying contract, lasting up to three
years, that enables youth aged 18 to 29 to obtain a vocational qualification, mainly
through on the job training. Lastly, Italian organizations offer contracts that enable
young people aged 18 to 29 to obtain a secondary of university qualification or higher‐
level training qualification. These programs offer support to people just entering the
labor force and provide a solid repertoire between the employee and the organization
that may be used in the future. Fiat, an automobile manufacturer in Turin, utilizes Isvor
Fiat, in connection with the Fiat Group, provides training, assistance, and consulting
services to the organization. The company uses a network of professional trainers and
consultants that specialize in HR, manufacturing, product development, marketing and
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sales, change management, e‐business, service management…etc. in order to guide and
develop employees within the organization. The learning specialists at Isvor Fiat
successfully take a systems approach to training and create a needs assessment to assist
in directing on‐the‐job training, coaching, mentoring, counseling, and learning centers.
Through learning centers, Fiat has implemented an effective system that requires
knowledge sharing between experts, tutors, and trainees.
C. Development and Delivery of Learning Programs: Italians expect trainings to be directly
influential and practical to the job. Often managers will set the expected performance
goals with little input from the employee. In successful HRD systems, a wide variety of
methodologies are offered. For example, Isvor Fiat provides online, in‐house classroom,
and collective training that focuses on employees learning from each other. Cultural
factors education, economics, and family influence the development and delivery of
HRD programs.
D. HRD Program Administration and Business Environment: The venue should be
comfortable and economical. Learners are selected on a needs basis and on the
perceived needs of the organization. Italians respect individual contributions to the
team and an opportunity to demonstrate strengths and have their expertise recognized.
III. Significant Synergies and Differences between Italy and the United States
As an expatriate, one must understand the critical differences between the United
States and the country they plan to engage in business, human resource activities with. This
section examines the critical differences and similarities between the United States, Italy, and a
few other countries. Specific challenges must be addressed when preparing to establish a global
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HRD program. As for a general business environment, Italians value a more relaxed business
atmosphere, hospitality, and doing business with someone they know. In contrast, the United
States values stiff business procedure and quick transactions. Nevertheless, the United States
and Italy do apply some on the same HRD principles. For example, the relationship between the
trainer and trainee is much more equal than one would find in Asian or Arab cultures. The
trainer is more likely to collaborate with the trainees and their organizational managers to
solidify learning objectives. An expatriate must take into consideration all the factors
influencing HRD in Italy and apply cultural sensitivity, communication skills, and flexibility to
their work overseas. A basic understanding of relationships can create a better business
environment that fosters mutual perceptions.
Issues currently faced by the Western world include an aging workforce which leads to
an outflow of talented people, a demographic shift, and talent management concerns.
Furthermore, technology continues to drive global interaction and plays a key role in the
development of HR programs. The United States and Italy currently face the challenges that
arise as a result of an aging workforce. Italy is experiencing aging trends in both its general
population and its workforce caused by an increased life expectancy, improved health, and a
low birth rate. The average number of children born to each woman was 1.41 in 2009, making
Italy among the lowest positions in the European ranking of total fertility and is very far from
the average number of children necessary to ensure generational replacement (2.1 children per
woman). Moreover, the average life expectancy was 78.9 years for men and 84.1 years for
women in 2009, placing Italy in second place under Germany. These issues require a younger
workforce to support an older population. According to Lazazzara and Bombelli, companies
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must strategize to cope with labor shortages through outsourcing, structural adjustments,
recruiting from new target groups (namely, women and older people), and optimizing the use
of the existing workforce, for instance, attracting retired annuitants (Bombelli and Lazazzara,
2011). Furthermore, these changes will lead to a skills gap that will damage companies that do
not enforce preemptive measures. Organizations must attract young talent as well as retain
older talent for as long as possible. Unfortunately retaining an older workforce has its
stereotypes related to poor performance, lower motivation and productivity, in comparison to
the young. Older workers also tend to be more resistant to change and display a lower ability to
learn. This creates a unique and vicious dynamic that human resource programs must address.
The United States, similarly, is facing a dilemma with the retirement of a significant portion of
the labor market: the baby‐boomers. Organizations must prepare specific HR strategies and
training to ensure the knowledge and skills from the older generation are imparted to the
younger workforce.
Another organizational shift both Italy and the United States experience is the change
from a manufacturing to a service or knowledge based economy. A service economy can be
defines as a system based on buying and selling of services or providing something to others. A
knowledge economy is referred to as the use of information or knowledge to generate tangible
and intangible value. The rise of these types of economies require HR practices to change. For
example, traditional HR practices assume that jobs should be narrowly defines, supervisors
should control workers, and short term results were emphasized (Trice and Beyer, 1993). With
knowledge organizations, employees’ knowledge and skills have a major impact on
organizational success, and employee retention is important because an individual’s skills are
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not easily substitutable. Knowledge organizations also tend to design jobs broadly to encourage
innovation, autonomy, continuous improvement, and participation in decision making. Such
fields include engineering, nursing, and computer technology. The change in economy results in
the displacement and unemployment of people lacking education or technical skill. Southern
Italy, particularly, suffers from high unemployment and a lower percentage of educated
individuals.
Furthermore, human resource programs will begin to face challenges regarding ethnic
diversity, especially in the United States. Italy will see more of a diversification in generational
aspects than ethnic, as immigration rates remain low at a rate of 4.29 migrants per 1000
population (2014). However, Italy is receiving a large influx of North African immigrants that will
need to be incorporated into the workforce. This can be done so by recruiting the top talent, no
matter what ethnicity the person is. The United States will experience a dramatic change in the
racial and ethnic make‐up of society. Today, ethnic minorities make up about 37% of the
population, but estimates show that they will comprise 57% of the nation by 2060 (U.S. Bureau
of Census, 2014). Furthermore, the number of Hispanic‐Americans will more than double in the
coming years, with a projected one in three people by 2060 (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2014). Little
research has been done on the impact of cultural values of ethnic minorities in the U.S. and HR
practices, however, studies have shown that Hispanics, African‐Americans, Asia‐Americans, and
Native Americans are, on average, more likely to endorse collective values whereas Anglo‐
Americans stress individualism more than their counterparts. Italians, as a western European
culture once based on more collectivist values, now typically side more towards individualistic
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tendencies and motivated by such. The United States will see a shift in what motivates
employees and how to implement HRD programs that best suite a diverse workforce.
Furthermore, technology supports the nontraditional workforces by allowing more people to
work flextime, part time, and as consultants. As a developer of Human Resources programs,
one must be ready to address the need for nontraditional workers and how they can be
successfully utilized. Nontraditional workers can be described as temporary workers,
independent contractors, and consultants. Technology plays a pivotal role in enabling the
expansion of the non‐employee workforce and providing the tools and functions employers
need to harness and leverage these resources (Arnold 2010). After the recession, many
employers were reluctant to hire more staff, and found better benefits and flexibility while
working with non‐employees. If you are an expatriate working in a company that relies much
on non‐employees, be diligent to get to know the people you are working with, as they may
provide useful services in the future. Cecile Leroux, director of global human capital
management strategy for Lawson, a St. Paul, Minnesota based provider of enterprise resource
planning software claims, “more organizations are looking to have a pool of contingents that
are proven resources they can draw on. Furthermore, understanding talent and who you have
becomes very important” (Arnold 2010). Expatriates must incorporate unique talent
management strategies when aiming to work with the most skilled and effective non‐
employees available to the organization. Labor management is likely to include the terms
“vendor management system” and “managed service provider”. A vendor management system
refers to technology; computer programs that can help standardize relationships with various
staffing suppliers and scope‐of‐work partnerships. Managed service providers are outsourcing
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terms that refer to companies that provide vendor management for a fee. Providers typically
handle processes such as billing, competitive bidding, and contract negotiation. As employers
continue to look for creative, cost‐effective ways to boost efficiency, the demand for more
flexible staffing solutions will increase. For example, director of talent acquisition David
Barrows says, “executives at HMS, a health care cost management company, chose to
implement technology without a managed service provider” (Arnold 2010). In summary,
organizations look to cut costs by subsidizing the labor to non‐employees. While implementing
global HRD programs, one should not ignore this significant section of workers, but rather
accommodate them and properly utilize their skills and specialties so that they’ll be resources
in the future.
In many ways, the United States and Italy are influenced by and face the same
challenges. As western cultures, individualism is stressed, technology and mental capability are
praised, and the older workers are beginning to retire, leaving major staffing challenges in their
wake. In contrast to these issues, one might find it useful to examine a country whose
challenges are far different than them, such as Taiwan. In contrast, Taiwan’s industrial structure
is still dominated by small and medium enterprises with limited resources to provide HRD and
training activities. Strategies are based by Confucianism, which believes in the welfare of family,
and harmony in society. Accordingly, HRD programs in Taiwan requires professionals to address
Confucian ethics in humanistic and harmonious ways. However, because of the rapid change of
global business, one could argue that Asian culture and business management are influence by
Western thought and behavior (Chuang 2013). Taiwanese HRD practitioners perceive their role
as a manager or a training specialist rather than a strategic policy influencer. Companies are still
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focused on the functions of compensation and labor law compliance, and they perceive
themselves as expert in communications and interpersonal relationships, but not change
agents. Typically, Taiwan’s HRD practice is far more training‐oriented than the western world.
HRD means training to solve current problems, rather than proactive action. Currently, the
Taiwanese government subsidizes training and development for private businesses in order to
encourage labor development. Whereas the western world endorses more knowledge based
occupations, Taiwan is just beginning to tap into the talent represented by highly trained and
educated workers. Expatriates would need to have a complete understanding of how to
develop HRD so that practitioners will perceive their role as specialists as well as organizational
influencers. Familiarity with national labor laws will also assist an expatriate attempting to
implement a HRD program. Examining Taiwan’s HRD practices provides a greater perspective
when evaluating how to implement HRD programs in Italy.
IV. Recommendations
Expatriates in Italy must be willing to immerse themselves in the local culture and
understand the organizational values that drive the company. Individuals should be selected
based on a more holistic selection process that includes personal attributes and interpersonal
skills (Marquardt, et all, 2004). Individuals must be able to demonstrate their ability to develop
relationships and how to influence strategies that specifically affect the challenges of an aging
workforce, a knowledge based economy, and ethnic diversity. American companies must
decide whether sending someone on the assignment or hiring a local professional is a more
viable option. In preparation for an assignment in Italy, expatriates should study cultural
profiles, social norms, basic language skills, and how the government and laws affect taxes,
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budgets, finances…etc. Training should consist of both cultural awareness and business
oriented strategies. Even training experience is highly desirable and it is important to be self‐
disciplined and confident in what you are proposing to the organization. Organizations utilize a
variety of pre‐departure preparation, and companies that operate extensively abroad may
provide cross‐cultural training to many of their employees on a regular basis, regardless of
future plans (Marquardt, et all, 2004). Furthermore, there needs to be a clear discussion of pay,
benefits, communications and other important HR aspects. The employer has an obligation to
ensure that the individual has all the resources necessary to feel comfortable and able to
implement a successful HRD program. During the project, expatriates in Italy will want further
information on local life, housing, shopping, schools, and health care. Host country mentors are
an effective way of making an expatriate feel like they have a reliable source to confide in and
rely on for information. The home office needs to maintain frequent communication, providing
relevant research materials, counseling, or assistance that may be desired. Lastly, repatriation
represents an important, and often neglected step to the employee as well as the company.
Studies show that 20 percent of repatriated managers leave their companies within a year and
up to 50 percent leave within three years. As an employer, you want to retain valuable
employees and their knowledge within the organization. Several steps must be taken to
encourage repatriates to remain with their company. Companies should plan for repatriation by
slowly reintroducing the individual back into company norms and allowing the individual to
share their experiences abroad. Repatriates experience a reverse culture shock ad may
experience depression due to a feeling of not belonging. Employers must manage expectations
ensure that there are promotional opportunities available when an expatriate returns. The
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individual wants assurance that they matter to their home company, despite their prolonged
absence.
As an expatriate in Italy, one will face the challenges of implementing a HRD program
that addresses serious strategies to cope with the challenges previously mentioned. Challenges
include an aging workforce which leads to an outflow of talented people, a demographic shift,
and other talent management concerns. Please refer to the following recommendations that
address practical and relevant information to help overcome the difficulties when developing a
HRD program for a large consumer goods organization, such as Fiat, Ferrero, or Eni. Although
brief, these suggestions will be able to guide the user in the correct direction.
Good practices regarding strategic age management can be defined as establishing
employment conditions for older and aging workers that provide an environment in which each
individual can achieve their full potential without being disadvantaged by their age (Taylor
2006). One must be proactive in managing a workforce that may be disadvantaged in job
recruitment, learning, training and development, career change, modernization of work,
retirement, workplace design, and health promotion. Specifically learning and training and
development practices are a strategic component in encouraging good practices for age
management. Training provides a supportive framework and allows all ages to feel valued,
engaged, and in sync with organizational goals. Several Italian companies have successfully
implemented HRD programs that support the aging workforce. Eni, an integrated energy
company, inaugurated a policy of knowledge management, recognition, and professional
development aimed specifically at non‐managerial staff members. Eni recognized the need for
competencies such as commercial skills, market knowledge, finance, communication, and cost
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management, to name a few. The company launched a “Knowledge Owner” project to address
the challenges of the generational change by increasing the value of employees holding
significant levels of knowledge. The award was given to about 200 workers with an average age
of 51 years, recognizing the talent these individuals hold and promoting further actions such as
coaching and mentoring of the younger employees. Some of the “Knowledge Owners” are
asked to conduct trainings for the Eni Corporate University, making them feel valued by the
corporation and useful to the future generation of workers. Another organization, Deutsche
Bank, spreads learning over the entire working life of employees in an effort to reduce the age
limits associated with learning new skills. Training and development shape an employee’s
outlook on their respective careers and expatriates must be aware of policies and programs
that can be used to encourage older workers to participate and mentor the younger workers.
With regards to retirement, Italian companies will benefit from allowing aging workers to
engage in flexible working hours. At the end of his/her working life, an employee may
experience new needs that require a rethinking of the work‐life balance. This can mean a
reduction in hours per week, flexible working arrangements, paid leaves, or job rotation
(Naegele and Walker, 2006). The Italian multinational food company, Ferrero, designed policies
to smoothly transition employees into retirement. Their program assists older workers in
finding new employment if they so wish, as well as offering flexible forms of retirement or
sabbatical periods in preparation for retirement. Furthermore, Ferrero enforced preventative
policies in terms of workplace design by having both social and medical services available on‐
site. Commitment to age management must go beyond developing diversity policies, but must
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holistically support and entertain a company culture that promotes inclusiveness,
intergenerational relationships, and mentoring.
Another challenge an expatriate may address when implementing an HRD program in
Italy is the change from a services based system to a knowledge based economy. HR processes
must expand their recruitment base to be able to employ desirable talented employees. Job
design should emphasize autonomy and participation in decision making. Keep in mind that
Italians want to understand the entirety of an issue before they make a decision on it, so be
prepared to offer resources that allow employees to thoroughly research and discern between
the appropriate alternatives. Incentives should promote employee identification, innovation
and retention. Knowledge based economies give way for opportunities to change and HR
should be used as a policy changer and have a strategic role in influencing organizational
success.
Due to the large influx of Northern Africans in Italy as well as other subgroups,
organizations need to alter their current reward and benefit systems to meet the needs of
these employees. Expatriates must analyze their current work force and future needs in order
to develop strategies and policies to support future ethnic change. Benefits systems must
provide flexibility in terms of rewards and allocations. Employees that value family may choose
an extra week of vacation in lieu of pay. Flexible compensation practices potentially will attract
applicants from all ethnic groups (Deadrick and Stone, 2015). Diversity in ethnic groups should
be seen as an opportunity to utilize many talents and skills that these individuals bring to the
workforce, promoting productivity and perhaps opportunities to reach broader markets for
their products and services. The American term, “cafeteria rewards system”, can be
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implemented in Italy’s HRD programs because the goal is to develop HR practices that meet the
needs of all members of the workforce.
V. Conclusion
Expatriates should focus specifically on the recommendations pertaining to age
management. As America is facing the same challenge, individuals may be able to draw on
knowledge and use it to benefit Italian companies in which they are implementing HRD
programs. Several Italian companies have implemented successful programs that promote
generational diversity and work to limit age stereotypes. Older workers must feel valued and
appreciated for the knowledge they have gained during multiple years in the profession.
Training for all ages keeps employees engaged and continually developing within the company,
encouraging retention and engagement. The above recommendations will enable expatriates to
have a greater understanding of the social, historical, and political issues surrounding Italy’s
business practices as well as the cultural factors that define how Italians work and live. America
and Italy face may of the same challenges surrounding workforce trends affecting the Western
world. Employers may use the recommendations to provide a basic background for training for
expatriates in need of pre‐departure information. Human Resources Development shapes
business strategy around the globe. One must remember to use technical knowledge and skills,
as well as the mindset to work efficiently across cultures. Potentially successful global
professionals will need to study and actively participate in trainings that allow to gain a better
understanding of the business environment. Employers planning to send their employees
overseas must provide the relevant training to avoid failures on account of inadequate
preparation, training, and project orientation. While abroad, employers need to reach out to
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their employees and ensure that they are integrating themselves into the local culture as well
as in the business. And upon repatriation, employers can encourage the company to thoroughly
include the repatriate and allow the individual time to adjust and share his/her experience.
Overall, these recommendations provide a practical background of what an individual will need
to understand before accepting a position in Italy.
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Marquardt, M., & Berger, N. (2004). HRD in the age of globalization: A practical guide to
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Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin.
Stone, D. L., & Deadrick, D. L. (2015). Challenges and opportunities affecting the future of
human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 25(2), 139‐145.
Taylor, P. (2006), Employment Initiatives for an Ageing Workforce in the EU15, European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin.